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B Vitamin Deficiency


By Frank Will


A Vitamin B Deficiency has shown to be linked to several diseases through various research studies, and supplements of this class of vitamins may be a tremendous help in preventative measures.

With modern science trying to fully understand a deficiency of this class of vitamins, several advances that changed the way the world viewed vitamins were made.

The discovery that too little folic acid, one of the eight B vitamins, and the link to birth defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly, started this change of view.

Fifty years ago no one knew what caused these birth defects, which occurred when the early development of tissues that eventually become the spinal cord and the tissues that surround it, or the brain, went awry. Over 25 years ago, researchers found that the mothers of children with spina bifida had low vitamin levels of one of the B vitamins.

Two large trials of randomly selected test groups were conducted where women were assigned to take folic acid or a placebo, and the tests showed that groups getting too little folic acid increased a woman's chances of having a baby with spina bifida or anencephaly; while groups getting enough folic acid either in the diet or through supplements seemed to prevent these defects.

Some if the evidence that modern medicine discovered is that what is considered enough folic acid, at least 400 micrograms a day, is not easily consumed from the food that we eat, and therefore must be supplemented.

Liquid vitamins and minerals offer a superior form of supplement of this class of vitamins, because of their superior absorption ratio compared to pills or capsules.

These early studies are why women of child bearing age today are urged to take extra folic acid, and in doing so, they may be preventing this birth defect in their children. This research is also what led the US Food and Drug Administration in requiring folic acid to be added to most enriched breads, flour, cornmeal, rice, pastas, and other grain products.

The other exciting discovery about the usage and benefits of folic acid and other B vitamins is that they may potentially fight heart disease and some types of cancer. It is too early to tell if there is merely an association between the increased intake of folic acid and other B vitamins and heart disease or cancer, or if high intakes prevent these chronic diseases, but there are some other interesting facts.

In the late 1960's, there was a case where two children had died from massive strokes. The case was examined by a Boston pathologist. Both children had inherited conditions that caused them to have high levels of a protein breakdown called homocysteine in their blood, and both had arteries that where as clogged of those of a 65 year old man that was a fast food addict.

Homocysteine is an amino acid that is found within the blood supply, and several Epidemiological studies have shown that too much of this amino acid is related to higher risks of strokes, coronary heart diseases, and peripheral vascular disease.

After analyzing the case, the pathologist hypothesized that high levels of homocystenine contribute to the artery clogging process of atherosclerosis, a condition where the artery walls are thickened with plaque.
Since then, there have been several other studies that have also linked high levels of homocystenine with increased risk of heart disease and stroke.

Folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 play key roles in recycling homocystenine into methionine, one of the 20 plus building blocks from which the body builds new proteins.
Without enough folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12, this recycling process becomes inefficient and homocystenine levels increase.

Several other studies have also shown that high levels of homocystenine are associated with increased risks of heart disease and strokes, and increasing the intake of folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 decreases homocystenine levels.

Other studies also show lower risks of cardiovascular disease among people with higher intakes of folic acid, those who use multivitamin supplements, or those with higher serum folate, the form of folic acid in the body.

In addition to recycling homocystenine, folate plays a key role in building DNA, the complex compound that forms our generic blueprint. Observational studies have also shown that people who get higher than average amounts of folic acid from their diets or supplements may also have lower risks of colon cancer and breast cancer.

Deficiency of this class of vitamins does provide for several interesting studies, and as a result, this is a vitamin class worth considering in your daily supplement intake.

I am an avid lover of pets and my wife and I have had several pets throughout our years. We are especially fond of dogs, and we have a 12 year old Dalmatian (our 3rd) and a "mutt" that we rescued when someone threw him away to die in a vacant field.

He found us, nearly starved to death, and weighed about 2 pounds.

After severe bouts of mange and severe dehydration, and over 1,000.00 in veterinarian bills, we saved the little guys life, and he is one of the best, if not the best, dogs we have ever had and today is a muscular, fit, and firm 70 pound best friend.

After finishing my MBA, which at middle age was not easy, I decided to keep the research work ethics that I acquired, and devote about two hours each night in understanding the health benefits of supplementation for both humans and pets and how they might strengthen our, as well as our pets, immune system in a pre-emptive approach to health rather than a reactionary approach.

Both of my daughters are avid cat lovers, and asked me to help them with health concerns and challenges with their cats.

I am not a veterinarian nor claim to be, just a lover of pets that loves to research and pass on some knowledge that might be helpful, or at least stimulating to the thought process.

Does Vitamin Deficiency Cause Hair Loss? Find Out Here


By John Farikani


Did you know on an average day every person out there can lose around 100 hairs? When your hair doesn't grow back it can create a problem. Hair loss women vitamin deficiency is something that many women need to know about. If they are lacking certain vitamins from their diet they could suffer from the problem.

Though if you were to name the main cause of thinning hair in women it would be stress. When it comes to vitamins and minerals though they are up there as a main cause too. So you need to pay a bit of attention and decide when you may have a problem or not.

When you are missing iron, such as suffering from anemia you could see more hair falling out. Though it is something that can be fixed by adding in some iron pills to your diet. You should really see the doctor to make sure there are not more problems in your body.

Hormones that become out of balance will also cause a problem with hair loss. In fact if your thyroid is either overactive or underactive your hair could be suffering. That's why it's not always just an iron deficiency that you should consider as the cause to your thinning hair.

There may be many diseases that can cause the hair to fall out and not grow back. Polycystic ovary syndrome is a perfect example. Manifesting itself sometimes through the symptom of a woman's hair falling out. But you could also have too many fatty acids in your diet.

If those fatty acids gather on your scalp they may cause your scalp to get dry, and that can cause your hair to fall out. With shampooing on a regular basis and using a shampoo that is made for dry scalp you can help out the hair loss problem.

For a fix to hair loss you may want to think about biotin and taking around two pills a day. After a few weeks you can actually see results, take no more than 8000 milligrams though. Some shampoos even have vitamins in them to help with hair loss.

Trying to help out hair loss, it could be your body isn't creating enough testosterone. Taking saw palmetto can help add that into your body, and promote your hair growth. When you see hair loss you should watch it closely, if you feel you may have a problem, head into see the doctor.

Hair Loss Women and Vitamin Deficiency - Must-Know Information


By John Farikani


Women who suffer hair loss have a tougher time than their counterpart males. What many women are wondering is does hair loss women vitamin deficiency have any correlation? Besides vitamins there are many causes that can lead to thinning hair in women.

Stress has to be one of the main causes women suffer from hair loss, but that isn't all they face. On an average a regular person will lose 100 hairs on each day. But those hairs will grow back in most cases. There are people though whose hair will not grow back.

Due to certain vitamins that could be missing from your daily intake your hair may not grow back. Iron and hormones will also help to contribute to the loss of women's hair. If your hormones become imbalanced it is one of the leading causes for women's hair loss.

Plus many illnesses can cause a woman's hair to fall out; a good example is that of polycystic ovary syndrome. This illness is also referred to as PCOS. Many times the only way a woman will be aware that she is suffering from PCOS is by losing her hair.

But right at the top of the list of women hair loss is the lack of vitamins and minerals. Too many fatty acids will cause your scalp to become dry; this will also cause your hair to fall out. With regular shampooing using a brand that prevents dry scalp you will be able to reduce those fatty acids.

Also when you have longer hair it seems that you will be more likely to lose hair than that of a woman with short hair. Biotin is vitamins that can help hair grow back if you're losing your hair. Taking two pills of this each day not more than 8000 milligrams can help you see results in just a little time.

There are other vitamins hair loss women and vitamin deficiency should look into. One such vitamin is saw palmetto, which will help build up your testosterone, and that will help promote healthy growth of hair. When you lose too much iron or even manganese you need to add more into your body by taking pills for them.

Since it's normal to lose some hair each day you shouldn't worry until you see a larger amount of loss. But once you see that make sure you get into see your doctor. It's said that the quicker you get into treat, the better results you can see.

Vitamin Deficiency - How to Prevent Hair Loss in Women With Nutrients


By Jeff Sharp


Hair loss is something that affects millions of women every year, so you're not alone in having this problem and looking for high quality information on how to prevent and restore your hair.

Being a woman suffering from hair loss can be extremely embarrassing and take a toll on your self-confidence. Losing your hair is a major problem in today's world, and it seems to bear its ugly head the first time when you're having your first child or when you're just getting older.

A vitamin deficiency is not the only reason for you losing your hair, stress and hormonal imbalances also play a big part in how healthy your hair is.

There are also some issues with hygiene products like shampoos and conditioners, which nowadays contain him and a lot of chemicals and other harmful substances. These products can cause hair loss if used for prolonged periods of time.

Sometimes hair loss can't really be prevented, but there are natural alternatives which can help you dramatically slow down the process of aging and increase your chances of keeping your hair for a long time.

Losing some hair every day is normal, but if you're reading this then you probably have noticed too much hair falling out and you're looking for a simple solution. The key is to look for a completely natural treatment or product that has been proven to work on women.

You might want to look into some new herbal treatments in the market today; these are completely natural and only contain natural nutrients and herbs.

Another way to boost your hair health is to live a healthy lifestyle and exercise, you might even want to supplement with high-quality multivitamin and pure omega-3 fish oil.

When you're looking to solve the problem of a vitamin deficiency, look for vitamins and minerals such as magnesium, zinc, biotin and vitamin B6. Other effective ingredients you might want to look into our horsetail silica and para-amino benzoic acid.

Vitamin Deficiency and Hair Loss - Simple Cures and Remedies Revealed


By Jeff Sharp


Vitamin deficiency and hair loss are closely linked. Millions upon millions of people suffer from their hair falling out every single day. The good news is that this can be prevented by making sure that you do not suffer from any nutritional deficiencies.

Many people are unaware of the link between vitamin deficiency and hair loss, the main reason is that there's so much information out there that it is sometimes easy to get confused.

There are many simple cures and remedies available today, such as Rogaine and Propecia, these have been proven effective, but they also come with more side effects than you might be comfortable with.

Curing and preventing your hair loss cannot be done overnight. If you want it done overnight then I suggest that you look into more expensive and potentially harmful solutions such as transplants and other traditional treatments.

If however, you're like me, you prefer a more gentle option that can treat your problems naturally and safely. The best option then is to learn which vitamins and minerals can help your body produce healthier hair.

Vitamin B is extremely important in order to maintain healthy hair, B-vitamins that you should look for are B6, niacin and folic acid. There are also important minerals that are extremely important to keep your hair growing the way it should, a few examples are zinc and magnesium.

Herbs can also further enhance your chances of preventing and even curing hair loss. Some studies have suggested that a herb called Saw Palmetto is effective in treating baldness in both men and women. Saw Palmetto keeps testosterone from converting into DHT or dihydrotestosterone, which is responsible for binding itself your hair follicles and eventually causing total baldness.

Vitamin deficiency and hair loss is not a big problem if you know what to do, and I hope you learned a thing or two by reading this article. Make sure that you only look for the best high-quality hair loss products, because there are so many out there that have not been proven safe and effective.

Hair Loss in Women With Vitamin Deficiency - Discover the Vitamins You Need to Re-Grow Your Hair


By Rob Hawkins


It is estimated that 25 million women in the US alone suffer from thinning hair with much hair loss due to a vitamin deficiency. However, once you know the right combination of vitamins, minerals and herbs you can start to regain your lost hair.

With hair loss, women vitamin deficiency levels tend to be low, especially the vital B group. The problem today is that the nutritional value of our food is just one sixth of what it was fifty years ago, and why experts recommend a daily natural supplement to balance this.

Strong, healthy hair begins with the proper nutritional building blocks and vitamin B6 is essential for boosting circulation, helping follicle growth and maintaining healthy hair.

Biotin is another B vitamin and vital for new hair growth and healthy skin and nails too. When combined with zinc and magnesium you have a winning combination to help avoid further thinning and female pattern baldness.

When it comes to herb extracts, Horsetail is one of the best for improving circulation, as well as boosting and rejuvenating the connective tissue - the foundation of your skin and regenerating skin cells.

Whatever the causes of hair loss in women, be it vitamin deficiency, hormonal or genetic, these nutrients can significantly help to bring back the strength and shine to your hair and encourage the regrowth of more.

The best and most sustainable way is via these natural ingredients which will also help to maintain your overall health as well.

As long as you don't expect a miracle overnight cure, and can wait to gradually and naturally re-grow your hair, then this is the best option! Many products on the market make wild claims but seldom live up to expectations, as you may have already found out.

To regain your confidence and once again look as young on the outside as you feel on the inside, look for these nutrients to help you achieve it.

Visit my website today to learn more about the natural substances that are excellent for women with hair loss issues that promote hair growth and optimum health.

Hair Loss in Women - Could it Be a Vitamin Deficiency?


By Sam Spiers

Did you know, that one in every four women will experience hair loss in her life? Do you know 3 other women? Yes? Well one of you will experience baldness, a fact that will shock and scare most. It is becoming a big problem, and one that needs a solution, fast.

The question that we have to ask is; for hair loss in women, should vitamin deficiency be blamed?

Vitamin deficiencies and their impact on hair loss

Fact: Some vitamins play a crucial role in having beautiful hair, healthy skin and lovely nails.
Science has proved it, you need to take your vitamins if you want to look to look rejuvenated and healthy.

Let us take vitamin B complex. It has been shown to be a necessary part of your diet if you want to have healthy beautiful hair. Also, biotin is good support if it is happy hair you are after.

If your body needs more of these nutrients, then there are a few foods you can eat to help it along, such as; whole grains, carrots, brown rice, peas and eggs. Each one of these foods will give you the necessary vitamin B your body needs to give you lovely locks.

Other Factors to Consider

Now you know that being deficient in certain vitamins can be a contributing factor to hair loss. However, there are other factors that you should consider whilst searching for a treatment for hair loss in women, rather than just a vitamin deficiency.

Lifestyle
Lifestyle has a huge impact on your hair, hard to be believe I know, but it is true. Smoking, is one that you will probably not have realised. It restricts the blood vessels in your body. Why is that relevant?

Well, having restricted blood vessels in your body, means that your hair follicles have a poor blood supply, and so you will experience a drop in the quality and amount of hair that your hair follicles will produce.

A life lacking in exercise, combined with a diet full of carbohydrates will also increase your chance of having to part with your locks. Therefore, exercise you must I'm afraid, even if it is just taking a walk, you should endeavour to do some form of exercise every day.

A healthy diet is also a good idea, especially if you pack it full of nutrients from all the major food groups. And remember, this will not only improve the condition of your hair, but your general health will be in for an improvement too.

Hereditary Hair loss
If your loss of hair is due to a gene you have inherited, then you have a little more work to do. This generally is due to a little of a male hormone, named androgen in your body. This particular hormone impairs the function of your hair follicles, stopping them from producing luscious healthy locks.
To combat this I would recommend you look into Minoxidil, it is very effective at remedying this kind of problem, and should give you beautiful hair in no time.

Hair Loss in Women Due to Vitamin Deficiency


By Suzanne Howell


Hair loss is not typically thought of as a health concern for women. When people think of hair loss, they think of an older man, with a thinning hair line, and they often dismiss the importance of treatment options as being merely cosmetic. The truth is that there are many women suffering from hair loss in silence. Unlike their male counterparts, their loss of hair is often related to an actual medical condition, one which can seriously threaten their overall health. Ranging from autoimmune diseases to vitamin deficiency, women lose their hair for a multitude of reasons.

In men, hair loss typical occurs at the temples, the forehead and the back of the head. This is called the "male pattern." For women, the loss is less localized and instead tends to happen all over the top of the head. When experiencing the loss of hair, women should really seek out the counsel of a physician to rule out possible causes. While almost all male baldness can be attributed to androgenic alopecia, most women suffering have some sort of vitamin deficiency or other illness. While men can focus on treating the hair loss itself, women often need to seek treatment for the underlying issue in order to make the loss of hair stop.

Vitamin deficiency is an often discounted cause of hair loss. Women that do not get enough of the B vitamins, B6, folic acid and niacin can often experience excessive shedding and lack of growth. Making sure that their diet is rich in these vitamins as well as the minerals zing and magnesium can help to stop the loss of hair. Women that lose their hair should also have their thyroid checked and may need to be checked for polycystic ovarian syndrome, as losing hair is one of the only visible symptoms of this health issue.

Whether it is caused by a vitamin deficiency, a thyroid condition or some other cause, hair loss in women needs to be thoroughly investigated. More than just an embarrassing cosmetic problem, losing hair is an indicator that something is not right and that there is a health problem that needs to be investigated. Women often experience temporary, dramatic loss immediately following child birth, major surgery, assuming a crash diet or undergoing a major emotional trauma. If the loss of hair continues after that, it is a good bet that there is something else going on.

How You Can Tell If You Have a Vitamin Deficiency


By Dr Jenny Tylee


Vitamin and mineral deficiencies do not always show up as major health problems. This is because most of us are not deficient in one single nutrient. So we don't have diseases such as scurvy (which results from a severe lack of Vitamin C). What we are more likely to have is what is called a 'subclinical' or marginal deficiencies. These marginal vitamin and mineral deficiencies are likely to be the cause for minor symptoms such as headaches, difficulty in sleeping or skin problems. These minor problems is left untreated are likely to become more serious which is why it is important to deal with the vitamin and mineral deficiencies as soon as possible.

Vitamin deficiency signs and symptoms

Our bodies make it clear when we have minor deficiencies. The following is a list of the symptoms and the vitamin and minerals that may be deficient.

Ask yourself the following questions:
1. Are you tired a lot of the time?
2. Is your ability to keep going noticeably decreasing?
3. Are you having a hard time keeping your weight stable?
4. Do you often experience physical pain - arthritis, muscle aches, migraines?
5. Do you often get colds?
6. Is your eyesight deteriorating?
7. Is your mental clarity or concentration decreasing?
8. Is your memory on the decline?
9. Are you experiencing more sleeping problems?
10. Are you often depressed?
11. Are you often anxious, nervous or irritable?
12. Do you have difficulty with your bowels either constipation or diarrhea?
13. Is your skin dry and scaly?
14. Do you have problems with pimples and blackheads?

1. If you checked yes to any of these then you could be suffering from vitamin and mineral deficiencies.

Have a look at the list below to see what vitamins and minerals may be deficient in your diet.

1. Hair problems - Vitamin B12, B6, Selenium
2. Eye problems - Vitamins A, C
3. Nervousness - B6, B12, B3, B5, Magnesium, Vitamin C
4. Infections - Vitamin A, B-complex, C, Biotin, Calcium, Potassium, Zinc
5. Fatigue - Zinc, Iron, Vitamins A,B,C,D
6. Constipation - Vitamin B-Complex, Vitamin C
7. Diarrhea - Vitamins A, Niacin (B3), B12,K
8. Muscle cramps - Vitamins B1 and D, Biotin, Sodium, Magnesium and Calcium
9. Skin problems - Vitamins A and B-complex, Biotin and copper.

The initial vitamin and mineral deficiencies may only lead to minor problems but they can lead to dangerous problems. The lack of antioxidant nutrients can lead to high levels of free radical toxins in our bodies. An example of this is a toxic substance called acetaldehyde that is produced by the liver in detoxification. These are dealt with by antioxidants. However in the absence of sufficient antioxidant nutrients or in deficiency states these substances have been linked to the development of diseases such as Parkinson's disease and motor neurone disease.

If you have signs and symptoms associated with vitamin and mineral deficiencies then you need to review what you are eating to improve your diet, cleanse your system so that you can make the most of the nutrients that you have and take a vitamin and mineral supplement.

References

Bland, J. 1996, Contemporary Nutrition. J & B Associates.

Soothill, R. 1996, The Choice Guide to Vitamins and Minerals. A Choice Book Publication.

Sullivan, K. Vitamins and Minerals: A Practical Approach to a Health Diet and Safe Supplementation. Harper Collins.

Is Vitamin Deficiency Cause for Hair Loss on Women?

Sunday, October 4, 2009 5:08:00 AM Posted by Food Supplement 0 comments

By Paddy Clark


Excessive hair loss for women is very alarming not just a sign of deteriorating beauty but it is also a sign of weakening self-confidence. This is because the hair is a woman's crowning glory and is always the first thing to be noticed. The hair also manifests a lot of things about a woman like her diet, hygiene and health. It is one of the more obvious signs on how the woman takes care of herself.

There are a lot of causes why women experience hair loss. In some cases, it may be a result of stress, growth of yeasts on the scalp, other illness mostly endocrine - related and hormonal imbalance that may be the result of menopausal stage or post- natal stages. However, in some cases, hair loss for women is a result of vitamin deficiency. Some women experience hair loss because of their diet. Some diets lack in proper nutrition that the body needs and therefore results to excessive falling hair. If the hair loss for women is just mild to moderate you can try some of these easy immediate treatments.

* Improve your diet - Some hair loss may also be attributed to vitamin deficiency. Vitamins B, C and E are essential vitamins that keep the skin and hair healthy. Other vitamins that helps nourish the hair are calcium, magnesium, copper, zinc and iron. It is believed that after pregnancy, a woman loses a lot of vitamins in her body. It is important that these lost vitamins need to be replenished as soon as possible. This is one of the cases why hair loss in women can also be accounted to vitamin deficiency.
* Try some herbal supplements - A lot of herbal supplements are available over the counter. Examples are kelp-derived supplements that are rich in iodine and gingko biloba which helps the smooth blood flow in the scalp.
* Examine your emotions and stress levels - Extreme negative emotions and stress is two of the more popular causes of hair loss in women. Keeping your emotions healthy and living a stress-free lifestyle will translate to a healthy scalp and hair.
* Seek professional help - Whether the cause of hair loss is an illness, vitamin deficiency or just plain stress, it is important that a person seeks the advice of a hair health expert before taking any medications.

Hair loss in women is not an unusual thing anymore. Women are also prone to hair loss and baldness as much as men. However, fortunately in most cases, the root cause of hair loss for women is poor diet that eventually becomes a vitamin deficiency.

Is Your Hair Loss The Result Of A Vitamin Deficiency? - 10 Nutrients Your Hair Can't Live Without


By Renee Adair


Good nutrition is vital for your body as a whole including your hair. Your hair follicles produce new cells faster than any other part of your body, so taking adequate amounts of vitamins, proteins and minerals is essential for normal hair growth and healthy hair. A vitamin deficiency can cause hair loss. Unfortunately, a beautiful head of hair is not considered to be a survival necessity by your body which makes it first on the list of functions your body will eliminate in order to deliver nutrition to the more vital parts. Since your hair demands a high concentration of nutrition and at the same time is low on the scale of physiological priority, this means that your hair is extremely sensitive to your general health and eating habits.

Of course, the easiest way to ensure adequate nutrition for your hair is to properly nourish and maintain the health of your entire body. Eating a balanced diet which includes protein, vitamins and minerals in the correct proportions will help to ensure that your hair loss is not caused by a vitamin deficiency. During periods of stress or at times when your diet does not adequately provide enough nutrients for your hair, vitamins and mineral supplements are available as a way to supplement your food and provide nourishment to your body as well as your hair.

Which vitamins and nutrients are essential to hair growth and healthy hair? Protein is the most important since the hair is made of protein keratin. Adequate levels of protein are required to maintain normal production of hair, but taking an excessive amount of protein will not help your hair to grow. Instead, your body will use the excess protein to supply organs that are vital to your body before it will supply any nutrition to your hair. Your hair will accept only what it needs but no more.

Vitamins are complex organic substances essential to sustaining human life. Organic substances occur naturally in plants and animals. Vitamin A, the B-complex family of vitamins, and vitamin C are essential to hair production and health, but taking too much of these vitamins can exacerbate your hair loss condition and cause more problems with the health of your hair. Vitamin A is essential to prevent blockage of the hair follicle, but too much of this vitamin can also cause hair loss. Deficiency of any of the family of B vitamins can result in dandruff problems and lack of pigment, as well as other hair and scalp problems. Lack of riboflavin or vitamin B-2 may cause the sebaceous glands to become enlarged causing more damage to the hair follicles. Lack of Vitamin C can cause patchy hair loss resulting from a lack of blood flow to the capillaries that supply blood to hair follicles.

Minerals in trace amounts are essential to the health of the human body, including the hair. Minerals are inorganic and are found in rocks and soil as well as in all living organisms. Iron is the mineral necessary to transport oxygen throughout the body, but is often deficient in the average persons diet. A severe shortage of iron or the inability to assimilate iron will result in anemia, which will cause a slowing of hair growth. Sulphur is involved in the chemical bonding of the hair and gives the hair protein its strength. Inadequate amounts of sulphur will weaken the hair strands. Copper compounds aid in forming keratin which gives the hair its texture. Copper also helps to manufacture pigments which produce color in the hair. Zinc is necessary for keratin synthesis, as are calcium, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel and selenium.

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